Ecological Urban Restructuring -THEORETICAL FOUNDATION AND CONCEPT ACTION
Ekhart Hahn, Dr.ing., Saksa / Berliini
Introduction
Cities are ‘built thought’. They represent the most materialized form of the relation between society and environment. Cities worldwide have become a symbol of the environmental crisis because they transform valuable nature resources into waste and pollutants. Cities, however, are also places of innovation. Solutions emanate from people whose living conditions are threatened. Many signs indicate that the time is ripe for basic changes in production and consumption processes, in people’s attitudes and behaviour, and also in the builtup structures of cities. The concept of Ecological Urban Restructuring has been theoretically developed and empirically tested in an international comparative research project.
The four elements of the concept are the following.
- ‘Eight ecological orientations’ were compiled as guidelines for concrete projects, strategies and measures.
- A ‘model of fields of activity and building blocks’ was developed as an overview of the measures of ecological urban restructuring which are possible today. It is a thinking and working aid to overcome the contradiction between sectorally oriented conventional planning and policies, and the necessary new integrated thought and action.
- The ‘conception of ecological neighbourhood development’ refers to neighbourhoods as comprehensible entities for their inhabitants. Neighbourhoods have been discovered to be the most important level of action for ecological urban restructuring. Many possibilities to network measures with the inhabitants and other local agents are possible. Through decentralized local networking, measures become ecologically effective, economically viable, socially acceptable and politically realistic.
- The ‘concept of eco-station’. Eco-stations are an infrastructural prerequisite for ecological urban restructuring. They should be ecologically oriented communication, culture and trade centers which are communally supported. A network of decentralized eco-stations should communicate locally, regionally, nationally and internationally and thus become the infrastructure for concrete tasks of urban ecological restructuring.
Three theses
Thesis 1. The ecological urban restructuring of the industrial society is the main task of the ending 20th and beginning 21st century. The natural vital basis of today’s and especially future generations is endangered to an unknown degree by the all too linear and short term optimization of technical, social and economic systems. Rethinking and restructuring are necessary in all spheres of life and all social structures. On the industrial societal level, new holistically oriented living designs must be developed and implemented. This task cannot be solved on the drawing board or in scientific institutions. Social practice is essential.
Thesis 2. Cities will play a key role in this process. Cities are the main living, production and innovation points of industrial culture. In a particular way, cities represent the materialized form of the relationship between human beings and their environment. The city is ‘build thought’. Urban lifestyle is lived thinking, feeling and behaving vis-a-vis human beings and the environment. In cities, the contradictions of societal developments become acute and new solutions are found. Cities are the starting point of the environmental crisis of industrial society. The crisis must be overcome through cities and their strength in innovation.
Thesis 3. The environmental crisis is global and ignores borders. It has become increasingly difficult to push problems from one place to another. Finding solutions has become an international task. Local and global action is needed. Industrial countries have a special responsibility as the main causers of environmental problems, but also as those with the scientific, technological and economic potential to solve them. Internationally coordinated norms and agreements as well as new action and support systems are needed for the ecological urban restructuring of cities. Strategies should be carefully related to different conditions in different parts of the earth.
Four levels of innovation
It is useful to distinguish four levels of innovation in urban technology. They demonstrate historical levels of technology and the direction for the further development of environmental technology. Only the fourth level of innovation can be acknowledged as - being really ecological. Nevertheless, related to a particular problem in a particular place and time, any one of the four levels of innovation could be the best solution, i.e. the only possible one.
First Level of Innovation: Measures according to the High Chimney Principle
With increasing industraliazation, toxic emissions made the air in cities so bad that the living conditions of inhabitants were directly threatened. The first ‘technical’ approach to their problem was to elevate the emitting chimneys to a level that the pollutants were distributed and thinned out in horizontal and vertical directions. Similarly, sewage from industry, households and agriculture was disposed in rivers and in seas. Solid waste was carried to dumps outside the settlements. The limits of this type of ‘solution’ to environmental problems are quite clear and became proverbial: Dilution is no solution to pollution! Nevertheless, this first generation solution to industrial society’s environmental problems is still in use. Sometimes it even makes sense as an intermediate solution, for example in the case of backyards threatened by high emissions or in the case of vertical exhaust pipes for trucks and buses.
Second Level of Innovation: Measures of Technical Treatment After the Fact
The Second response to the environmental crisis were technical treatment measures after the fact. The limits to a spatial externalization of environmental problems demanded the development of a new type of technical innovation, the post-operative filter and cleaning techniques, or end-of-pipe
technology. Waste and pollutants is not avoided, but their uncontrolled dissemination is at least controlled. Desulphurization of flue gas, sewage treatment, waste incineration, controlled dumps for waste and toxic waste, intermediate and final storage of nuclear waste and toxic waste are examples of this type.
The measures of technical treatment still represent standard answers to increasing environmental problems. However, it has become clear that these techniques cannot really solve the problems but only shift them regionally and from one environmental media to another. And it is also becoming more and more difficult to find places for dump sites or waste treatment plants etc. because no one wants them in the neighbourhood.
Third Level of Innovation: Measure of Technical Prevention and Problem Avoidance
The goal of innovation at this level consists of minimizing the use of raw materials, energy, waste and emissions. This approach demands cycles or partially integrated systems. Examples, in architecture and planning, of this generation of technology are climate-adjusted building, solar and wind energy techniques, multiple-use and recycling of water, recycling of building materials, separating and composting of wastes. These techniques are not yet very widely used.
Fourth Level of Innovation: Preventive Techniques and Concepts with Socio-Ecological Principles
Designing socio-ecological technology is an extension of the third level of innovation which in its purely technical orientation may not give enough consideration to the socio-cultural causes of environmental problems. A real solution to the environmental crisis is possible only when the social and cultural dimensions, i.e. its causes, are incorporated. Socio-ecological technology means making the environmental and social dimensions of technology experiential again, and overcoming the very limited comprehension of environmental goods as economic resources i.e. as ‘fuel of industrial society’. Human beings are understood as proactive, aware, sensitive and responsible creatures who can comfortably and creatively live with both technology and environment.
Element of a strategy for ecological urban restructuring
The pilot phase of ecological urban restructuring was carried out in Berlin in 1984–1989. Urban ecology projects were realized on building and neighbourhood levels. Some projects attracted wide attention: Block 6 in Kreuzberg, an integrated water concept with a biological treatment with plants, the Moritzplatz Neighbourhood project in Kreuzberg and the eco-houses on Corneliusstraße/Rauchstraße in Tiergarten. Based on these and other experiences, demonstration projects were organized by the Science Center of Berlin in an international cooperative research project dealing with ecological urban restructuring. Neighbourhood strategies were compared with partners in Poland and former Czechoslovakia by testing concept transferability and developing an empirically based theory and strategy for action.
One result was the concept of ecological urban restructuring with the following four essential elements.
- The eight points of orientation serve as a guideline and as a basis for discussion on specific projects.
- The fields of action and building blocks are a framework for the development of project - specific political strategies and individual measures which are integrated and comprehensive.
- The concept of ecological neighbourhood development is important because neighbourhoods, being comprehensible for their inhabitants, have been discovered to be the most important level of action for ecological urban restructuring, especially for a networking of appropriate technical, social and urban planning / design measures.
- The ecostation concept is an important requirement for the initiation of ecological urban restructuring.
Eight Points of Ecological Orientation
The eight points of ecological orientation were formulated because there was a need for guidelines on ecologically compatible urban planning. Explanatory aids to what is understood by ecological urban restructuring are hardly available. Institutions and actors are badly prepared for a topic which will be a central one in the future. Theoretical assumptions and empirical findings of the research project on ecological restructuring are summarized in illustration. Totally new criteria for thought and action to reform the interactions between society and environment are not needed. Rather, principles of environmentally and socially compatible technology and forms of settlement, verified by centuries of experience, should be systematized. This observation is concretized in the terminology of the ‘eight points’. Thus a basis was established for the critical discussion of ecological urban restructuring.
(1) Human-ethological orientation.
If we do not have a better understanding of the nature in us, no solutions for the nature around us can arise. It is to be noted that we carry traces of thousands of years of evolution in nature and in small and big social units. From this emerge behavioral patterns, which modern urban planning often disregards. Human-ethological planning criteria comprise the human being’s need for individual space and group territory, its search for identity and self-representation and social structures.
(2) Participation and democratization.
Participation of the inhabitants is the first ‘ecological law’! The reduction
of city inhabitants to mere consumers and considering them only as incompetent recipients of sevices is a social and ecological dead-end. Personal participation, experience and responsibility in the interaction with the environment will instigate positive learning processes. Decentralisation in planning and implementation of the local hahitat leads to spaces for individual and collective awareness and self-realization.
(3) Orientation to cycles and networks.
Nature is the most economical and ecological architect. Its products are harmoniously placed into energetic and material cycles and optimally adapted to local conditions. Builders, architects and city planners should again learn from nature’s intelligence. Pilot projects of ecological urban restructuring have demonstrated that savings of electricity, heating energy, drinking water, wastes, etc. of up to 50% and more are realistic. Apart from this, building materials which are damaging to health and the environment should be substituted; electromagnetic currents should be taken into consideration.
When choosing building materials and designing products, it is important to consider the whole production, consumption and deposition cycle and its effects on people and the environment. This concerns the origin of the raw materials, their production methods, their transport, the use of energy and waste treatment. Corresponding substance-value factors should be integrated into all planning activities.
(4) Orientation to nature and the senses.
It is not enough to understand cyclical orientatiton and participation in purely oganizational or technical terms. People must be enabled again to experience them personally. This means that ecological urban restructuring is above all a creative task. It is important to overcome the reduction of functional or aesthetic aspects of the city as expressions of linear and sectoral understanding.
Since most of the natural and cyclical relations of architecture, urban planning and technical systems can no longer be experienced with the senses, sensitivity and responsibility wither away and indifference as to what is bad and good in life rises. For example water in the city just occur between the tap and the drain, and one does not bother about what happens before and after.
(5) Orientation to qualified density.
Ecological urban restructuring implies integration of urban functions, a creative mix of residential, work and leisure activities on the smallest possible scale (qualified density). This means the realization of multiple alternatives for cooperation, and of the respective possibilities for saving time, distance and resources. The task for urban planning then is to develop new forms of mediation between urban experiential qualities and possibilities of natural elements. This involves creating spaces for plants on and around buildings and the fostering of small-scale building elements that interact with one another and with nature. The objective is to help urban dwellers to experience the richness of natural cycles.
(6) Orientation to Genius Loci.
The Chinese doctrine of Feng Shui stipulated a way of constructing buildings and cities, of utilizing land and natural resources so "that the landscape was not changed in such a way that the earth’s life-supporting energetical influences and operating laws would be disturbed". This was an important guideline to people’s identification , their ability to put down roots and integrate themselves into a given natural context. In a natural-spatial sense, the orien- tation to the Genius Loci means defining an experiential relation to the geographic, climatic and geomorphological surroundings, to the flora and fauna specific to the area, through architecture and urban planning. Today, orientation to the Genius Loci means to relate architecture and urban planning to the history of a given place. Reference to the Genius Loci thus means to comprehend the city and the urban neighbourhoods as living memory. Buildings are to be consciously incorporated as links into the historical chain.
(7) Ecology and economy.
So far, environmental protection policies, as technical and political reactions to environmental damages, have neither proven sufficient nor financially viable. Instead of treating symptoms, we must develop preventive ecological strategies which strike at the anthropological origins of the environmental problems. A new sustainable symbiosis between economy and environment in the urban context requires innovative instruments like resource taxes, emission charge, billing according to consumption, environmental accounting, appropriate building standards, planning laws and strategic subsidies. Furthermore, it is necessary to create suitable conditions for new forms of co-operation between the formal and the informal economy, between administration and local people towards co-planning, co-production, co-responsibility in forming the local habitats.
(8) International orientation.
Local and global environmental problems, the destruction of the resource basis in the developing countries and the waste of resources in the industrial countries are closely linked. Ecological urban restructuring thus requires an international exchange of knowledge and experience as well as mutual support in implementing new urban ecological strategies. Important impulses for environmental policy originate from decentralized networks, a new kind of pressure from below. Suggestions to finance such ‘help-for-self-help’ projects are at hand. Apart from funds of the World Bank, the OECD and WHO, the peace dividend, i.e. funds used for armaments, may be channelled to these of activities.
Fields of Action and Building Blocks
The question is how can the proposed points of orientation be made more specific and put into practice. ‘Fields of action’ and ‘building blocks’ were formulated on the basis of a theoretical foundation and experiences from pilot projects, trying to mediate between the reality of sectoral planning, of existing policy and administrative departments and the necessity of integrated thought and action.
Three fields of action, complementing each other, are particularly important for integrated ecological urban restructuring:
1) urban technology and urban design
2) grass-root democracy and environmental communication, and
3) urban economy and political administration.
Only by a network of these three fields of action does ecological urban restructuring have a chance. If not so, things will remain at an exotic and only partly convincing pilot project stage. Particularly the second and third fields of action indicate the importance of changes in the economic, social and political conditions, which again depend on a new common environmental consciousness and a new environmental ethic. In the mentioned international project, the three fields of action were made more specific by a number of ‘building blocks’.
The building blocks relate to established and new planning areas, policies, instruments and research proposals which are of particular importance to ecological urban restructuring. A variety of dialogue partners can be addressed (persons, institutions and associations) concerning the implementation of strategies. Tasks can be formulated, obstacles to their realization can be identified, agreements about solutions reached, and finally implementation begun.
The term ‘building block’ illustrates that the function and capacity of each block becomes ecologically, economically and socially effective only in conjunction with the other blocks. Any block has only a limited chance of implementation without this networking. This does not mean that all building blocks should necessarily be taken into account when planning and implementing projects. The building block model is rather a framework which serves to recognize suitable approaches for action in a specific situation and in relation to local possibilities. In the implementation of ecological urban restructuring, three categories of measures have proven useful (and for which practiceoriented handbooks) are now available:
Standard measures are technically tested and available on the market and cause little or no extra cost. Examples
are water-saving technology, certain energy-saving measures, environment and healthy building materials, urban greening.
Extra measures, i.e. products and technologies on the market which have been tested technically but involve extra costs in planning, investment or use. These are ecologically effective measures which are not yet economically viable within the present framework of urban planning
Experimental measures that are in a research and development stage, hence are not yet state of the art. These measures are used in pilot and research projects with considerable extra cost, but may play an important role in the future.
Ecological Neighbourhood Development
The urban micro-area, i.e. the area perceived by people as their neighbourhood and district, is especially significant for developing and testing the ideas of ecological restructuring, it is where people live and are in their daily activities, and are most directly affected by environmental problems. Here the causal relations between problems and impacts for people can be reckognized, and it is here that the ‘organized irres-ponsibility’, or apathy, can best be understood and dealt with. New ecological urban solutions must be developed within real working and living situations in neighbourhoods and districts. Urban planning and specific urban structures, such as waste removal systems, which are now organisationally isolated from each other and reduced to their technical and functional elements, have to be integrated here.
In the conditions of increasing urbanization and densification of the post-industrial culture, a new and sustainable human-environment relationship has to be developed in neighbourhoods. A new behavioral ethic should be based on new ways of participation and co-responsibility. A reorganization of architecture and urban design is needed in order to build urban infrastructures in small-scale community networks that connect urban dwellers to urban processes and functions. This can be realized only with respect to local conditions, taking into consideration the varying types of individuals and groups as well as urban and natural structures and processes.
Current discussions of urban ecology measures show that neighbourhoods are the most appropriate spatial and functional level in the city for the development and testing of new connections between old centralized and new decentralized urban systems. This deals with technical, political and social as well as economic systems. Pioneering efforts have shown that programs must be organized according to particular community situatios. Waste management requires coordination of measures on the neighbourhood level: reducing volume, collecting recyclables, toxics and other wastes, and composting. A large variety of measures is needed also for improving the micro-climate: community gardens, neighbourhood parks, re-exposing and planting of soil, roof and facade greening. Neighbourhood level cooperation is needed also for decentralizing water systems: rainwater, greywater and groundwater. Traffic quieting means and speed limits should be developed in model neighbourhoods: uncovering and re-use of surfaces for the benefit of pedestrians, bicyclists and greening. Finally the neighbourhood scale is important for demonstrating conserving energy and heat supply systems such as decentralized co-generation power plants, local heating plants, heat exchange technologies and solar technologies.
Environmental communications strategies should also be developed in connection with the quite technically orientated ‘building blocks’. Experience shows that technological alternatives remain ineffective as long as they are not accompanied by information, education and training. Residents should be offered new training and occupational opportunities, which lead towards paid positions, but also assist and encourage individual initiative and involvement in the co-organizing of daily neighbourhood life.
New employment and possibilities for professionalization in the area of ecology arise through construction projects and new demands in health and other services. To go along with the ecological reconstruction of living environments is the ecological conversion of production and service operations. Ecological trade and activities will only achieve a real breakthrough when housing, employment and consumption are organized to support such activities without involving great extra costs in time and money. It is relevant to realize the necessary small-scale networks of ecological measures on the neighbourhood level.
Ecological urban reconstruction could be a promising field for new economic initiatives for both small and medium scale operations as well as for larger entrepreneurs. This could mean the creation of new markets and job positions. Important here is the creation of suitable conditions that would direct economic productivity, technological creativity and social motivations in a direction that would contribute to an improvement of environmental conditions in the neighbourhood and city. The development of integrated social, ecological, political and economical strategies will be a key challenge the neighbourhoods of cities with great social, employment and ecological problems.
The Ecostation Concept
Information about ecologically sound product and service supply are crucial to the mobilization of neighbourhood-based resources, and necessary for getting the concept of ecological urban restructuring under way as a self-developing process. Thus, building a network of ecostations is seen as a key element in meeting local as well as regional, national and international challenges of ecological urban restructuring. A network could be developed, with ecostations as the in- frastructure, including decentralized and ecologically oriented trade, service and cultural organizations that concentrate on ecological restructuring and market opportunities in neighbourhoods. Ecostations should incorporate opportunities and situations through which individuals and institutions could support each other. Ecostations could respond to the need for new integrated methods and work on planning and design. They could become important ‘planning and design symbols’ of dealing with central challenges.
Ecostations are intended to work with local neighbourhood-based problems as well as city and regional functions. Ecostation networks could at first be built in cities and later be connected with each other nationally and internationally by communication technologies. Such networks could organize local, regional and international exchange of experiences, and encourage mutual support with project or researchbased cooperation. The establishment of ecostations at the neighbourhood level is of particular meaning because there the micro and macro areas of urban structures come together. Local people are directly affected by problems and opportunities for participation and involvement. The neighbourhood level is also significant for a reorganizing of economic and social conditions with respect to ecological restructuring.
Project example Moritzplatz -Ecological Neighbourhood Development
The foundation of this project in Berlin-Kreuzberg is a decen-tralized infrastructure developed through an interdisciplinary and participatory planning process. Central to this project is the networking and implementation of a range of coordinated "Building Blocks", including an integrated neighbourhood energy, heating and water system designed to complement the central city systems. Planning results have already shown that the realization here of such a neighbourhood infrastructure (block heating plant, co-generation power system for industry, parallel water supply lines) could reduce the energy consumed for heating by 50% and consumption of drinking water by 50% as well, which would make the plans economically feasible. While the demonstration project of ecological renewal concepts continues at Moritzplatz, it has so far only been carried out in isolated elements. At the same time many concepts are being tested in other locations in Berlin.
A decisive factor here for the realization is again that of "Environmental Communication". At Moritzplatz this is focused on increasing the ecological understanding of the residents and other affected people, and involving them in a step-by-step development of energy, water and waste concepts.
The Moritzplatz project emphasizes a socio-ecological design approach, which means making the environmental and social dimensions of technology "experiential" and visible again. Another central concept is the development of an "Ecostation", which would be an ecologically oriented communications, business and service center. Importantly, the area residents are seen as being active participants in neighbourhood development, and are no longer understood just as passive consumers.
Two factors have been found to be crucial to the realization of integrated concepts:
- The social organization must be further understood and developed. Here it is important to create better ways for involving local, affected people in environmental reviews of projects. Environmental education (schools, adult colleges, etc.) is also to be emphasized in connection with "Environmental Communication".
-The "true costs" (including external, environmental and social costs) of resource consumption must be better identified and dealt with. As it is, the society as a whole (the West German economy in 1989) could be seen to be carrying costs of about 150 billion DM per year. These costs don’t appear yet in the records or calculations of either public or privat suppliers, rather they’re financed somewhat indirectly through taxes.'
Project example Block 6 - Integrated Water Concept
Encompassing 106 apartments and part of a city block in Berlin-Kreuzberg, this project was funded by the Federal experimental housing and urban design program, with objectives of realizing an integrated and decentral water system with local participatory planning. This is in essence an example of a localized approach for the treatment and use of grey water and rain water, and a sparing use of drinking water. A socio-ecological design provides local residents with opportunities to experience water in ways that can encourage respect for this often abused life element.
Water concept measure include:
- Parallel water systems were installed for providing drinking water and service water (treated grey water for toilet flushing and for plants).
- Grey water is treated in a system of ponds with water plants.
- All rain water is retained on site, partially used and treated by greened roofs, and otherwise collected in a pond surrounding the grey water ponds.
- Water saving fixtures and technologies, as well as water meters were built into all of the apartments.
In addition there is a waste reduction and recycling program, and two compost stations on the site.
The relationships between the applied ecological concepts and the behavior of the residents has been studied in the context of an accompanying research program.
Results
A significant reduction has been shown to be possible in the dependence on central supply systems. At the beginning of the project a water consumption (of centrally provided drinking water) of 165 ltr./pers./day was measured. Current con-sumption is about 8090 ltr./pers./day. The project can be seen to become economical as the costs of water correspondingly increase. In 1983 the cost of water was at 2 DM/cbm, in 1991 at 4 DM/cbm and by 1997 it will probably be up to 8 DM/cbm. While the investment costs would be covered with such water rates, the "true" cost of water must in any case be set still higher.
Positive results have also been seen in connection with the social reactions. It is important to note that the residents of Block 6 are "typical" of other renters in Berlin public housing who have "Housing Need Certificates". A high level of interest in participating in the project’s planning and management has been largely credited to the intensive counseling efforts and resident participation programs. A block association "Eco-Social Living" was selforganized by the residents after a series of planning workshops, and has assumed responsibility for part of the water systems maintenance (i.e. cleaning the water system’s treatment ponds). A new quality of urban lifestyle has developed: a technical system that functions on the basis of social organization and understanding.
SUSTAINABILITY & URBAN DESIGN
FIRST WE SHAPE THE CITIES -THEN THEY SHAPE US!
Jan Gehl, professori, Tanska / Kööpenhamina
The car-oriented North American Cities and "The good Life"!
For more than 2o years I have had the opportunity frequently to visit Canada and USA. I have lived there and worked at various Universities, and seen many corners of the continent -and at regular intervals. Throughout this period the use of automobiles have steadily increased, and cities and lifestyles have been gradually changed. Frequently one is told that these cities and this lifestyle represents "The good life", a world of freedom, mobility and opportunities. As the years have gone by, and the more I have seen of this development, I have become less and less convinced.
On the contrary I have seen more and more examples pointing towards the fact, that more dependence on motor cars and more traffic in a Society actually reduces the quality of life in a number of ways. There is no end to car expansion. The more roads being built, the more traffic. In Los Angeles, where they have tried for many years to improve mobility by just adding more and more roads, they have come to the conclusion that it is impossible to build enough roads. There is no room if other city functions shall find room in the city, and further the air quality have detoriated so much, that this in itself have nessecitated strong restrictions on car driving. So bad has the situation become that -of all things- they have, in the early 1990´s, been forced to introduce subway lines -and this in Los Angeles, oh boy !!
The US city centers have detoriated rapidly. More through traffic, more freeways and foremost more parking and asphalt. Many citycenters have become seas of asphalt. Under this pressure of more cars, more spread out functions and more asphalt in the cities, the pedestrians have largely given up. There are really no reasons for walking, distances are too long, the environment too ugly, the functions which used to line streets are gone -and security have become a growing problem. Walking have become nearly impossible, the people oriented streets have gone and the public life have gone. What is left, are the shopping malls and the inner city shopping arrangements where people move inside the buildings, under ground or by bridges from building to building. Setting foot on the streets ? No way, man. Too dull -and too dangerous!
The City center of Atlanta, Georgia is an example of this type of internalized, air conditioned city. In one corner of the city center stands a 7 storey parking structure with 2 storeys of Fittnes Center on top. Park´n sweat! In Atlanta airport advertisements from the Heart Association urges the americans to walk. "Take stairs not lifts. Park in the far end of parking lots and walk the rest of the way. Try to walk when you are in your neighborhood. Have a long life". Reinventing walking ?
In the suburbs housing is spread out more and more. Units are single family homes and in front can be found 2-4 even 6 garages and parking lots pr. house. Seas of asphalt and big distances between people. Walking or bicycling to anywhere is virtually impossible. Too long, too boring -too unsafe! Everyone leaving these homes have to drive -or to be chaufeaured. This chaufearing of children to schools and activities have become a major pastime in the suburbs. And there is no choice here. Someone must drive -whether she likes it or not.
When nobody are on the streets, when houses are spread out, and generally turns their back to the ugly automobile environment this entire environment becomes deserted and the feeling of insecurity spreads. The continent have become full of "We watch crime in this Neighbourhood" signs. The signs are directed to "the bad guys" but everyone reads them, and gets more worried. City planning and ways of building and living certainly do not assist towards creating a safer and friendlier society.
On most University Campuses can be found "Safety phones" where the girl students after evening classes can phone for Police escort, to take them out to their cars in the huge, dark, deserted car parks. The good life? Using enormous amounts of resources and energy to build and run this automobile dependent society, and accepting the pollution on the side, there is not much evidence available, to prove that a better over-all quality of life, is actually achieved. As a matter of fact the exact opposite conclusion seems more valid in this situation.
European models offering a more balanced approach -and a wider choice of life styles
While all this have been going on in North America -and quite a few other places, it is interesting to note that other models for city planning have been followed -offering wider choices concerning transportation and lifestyles.
Many european cities, have followed a more balanced transport policy, viewing public transport, bicycling, walking and driving in cars as suplementary means of transport which together can secure mobility.
Especially in city centers we see an approach distinctly different from the US approach. Public transport, bicycling and walking have not only been kept alive, but have in many cases been upgraded to secure decent balances. As a result increases -if any- in car driving in European cities have been much slower than in North America. In Europe we have also seen many very enthusiastic responses to improvements to the public spaces. Copenhagen can serve as an example. Over 30 years areas for pedestrians in the city center have been dramatically extended. Over the same period the use of public space have tripled. More good spaces have let to many more people using the public spaces, indicating that in our present day society, there continues to be, a strong urge to use the city as a place for experiencing society, meeting other people or just generally have a good time in the company of fellow citizens.
In the European suburbs -especially in Northern Europe, Scandinavia & Finland- we also encounter changes in the ways suburban residential areas are built. After periods with mostly single family houses and modernistic concrete blocks, we have since the early 1970´s seen a movement towards "low-dense" housing, with people being closer to their gardens and closer to each other. A higher emphasis and various types of community living is also evident. Day care for children, community houses in the new projects, carefully laid out outdoor areas. In Denmark this developement has by now led to a situation where virtually no single family houses are built anymore. Nearly all new construction being dense low projects, which correspond better to the changes in household composition and life styles.
Concerning new towns Europe have seen a number of interesting new schemes based on the idea of "City living" rather than the spread out suburban patterns. "Katajanokka" and "Pikku Huopalahti" in Helsinki,"Skarpnäck" in Stockholm, "Høje Tåstrup" and "Egebjerggaard" in Denmark being examples of this new way of building new towns based on the ideas of "The Renaissance of the European City". All above examples will be based on a more balanced approach to transportation as well as a careful treatment of the public spaces in order to cater for public life as well as to make it feasable for all generations to walk and bicycle -including walking to and from trains and buses.
City models, Life styles and Sustainability
The way we shape our cities does greatly influence the way we can live, including the options open to the various age groups, genders and income groups in society.
Alternatives to the North American car oriented society have indeed been developed. When it comes to cities and life styles- choices are at hands.
The existence of these choices and of the various -especially European- planning alternatives, gives an interesting starting point, when facing the challenge of making sustainable new cities.
Seaton new town, Toronto, Canada -a case story.
Competition for a sustainable New Town for 90.000 inhabitants + 45.000 work places.
The Seaton Copmpetition
The 1994 Seaton competition will be used as a case story. The large Seaton area forms a part of Pickering Municipality just North of Toronto. A huge area of farmland was bought by the Ontario Government with the purpose of building a new airport. The airport plans have since been abandoned, and Seaton is still lying as leased, agricultural lands just at the fringes of Toronto.
Having abandoned the airport plans, the Ontario government has decided to build a new town on half of the lands, leaving the rest for intensive farming. Furthermore it has been decided that the new town should be built on sustainable principles, to demonstrate to the Canadians how good quality of life can be achieved , with less resources. Some of the main points in the competition programme being: A compact city (do not use too much farm land), respect natural features on site, a fine array of life style options and a substantial reduction in car transportation.
The competition is organized in 3 stages. Stage one a prequalification round involving some 50 multidisciplinary teams. Stage two a concept and ideas competition involving 10 selected teams and stage three a more detailed planning & design competition involving three finalist teams from stage two. Stage three is in progress with 3 November 1994 as due date.
As a case study I shall present the sketches and concepts of one of the three finalist teams. Team coordinators being: Marjut & Klaus Dunker, Toronto, with Prof. Jeff Stinson, Toronto, Prof. Peter Bosselman, Berkeley, Jan Gehl, Copenhagen and 10 other associated firms and individuals from a wide range of disciplins as members.
Place, Life & Environment -the three chosen planning parameters.
The multitude of planning parameters involved in the Seaton plan have been grouped in three main groups. Place involving site, setting, landscape, climate, regional characteristics, history, Life involving all aspects concerning the creation of a good contemporary living environment, and finally Environment involving the multitude of environmental issues to be adressed. The reconciliation of these sets of parameters constitutes the planning task. For each group of concerns a number of the planning principles will be presented .
Seaton Design principles:
Place
* Use Toronto Grid.
The entire Toronto landscape is divided into a grid system, used originally for laying out the land. Farms as well as cities are laid out based on this grid. By using the Toronto grid the history of the Seaton Landscape is respected. The grid is further a well proven pattern for city development in this region.
*Reconcile Grid & Landscape
Whenever the city grid meet important landscape elements-ravines & woods- the landscape element interrupts the street grid, thus creating interest and variation in the street system without interfering with natural elements
*Protect/reuse valuable Agricultural
By making the new town compact the best agricultural land is preserved for various forms of farming.
*Respect natural fauna & features
Respecting the existing woods and ravines on the site (and keeping recreation off these features) the original Seaton fauna and wildlife can be preserved
* Respect regional climate
Toronto region is 1500 kilometers south of Scandinavia. Climate is continental with hot summers and cold but rather sunny winters. Nearness to the Lake creates windy conditions. Building compact and low and with many trees will reduce the wind problem and bring sun down into the streets and gardens. The trees will provide shade in the summer and the greenery will provide coolnes through evaporation.
Life
The present day society situation as well as forseable future demands, must form the basis for creating a liveable new town. A number of important changes concerning the way we live and how we should build, have have already taken place. Others are in progress. Some of these changes will be listed here based on Scandinavian statistics. The tendencies apply to nearly all industrial countries and certainly also to Canada.
1. The average size of households is continuously decreasing. By 1994 an average Danish household has 1,9 members. In cities the household size is 1,6. The vast majority of people live in one and two person households. If there are children in a household they will be few (1,6 children, average). Many new types of households have sprung up: Students and other young people living by themselves, single adults, single parents, many old people living in very small households. In consequence many social contacts will by now have to be found outside the home.
2. People live longer. Our communities have a big population (15-20 %) of elderly people in good health and generally having quite an interest in just going on living as they have always done in neighbourhoods among other people.
3. Changes in the working situation have for quite many people meant that the work has become less interesting and creative. The leisure time acquires greater importance as the prime time for socializing and engaging in interesting and meaningful activities.
4. An important change in the working situation is the fact that more and more women are working, indicating that new types of social networks and services are needed in the residential areas. In Denmark 91 % of all women in "working age" are educated and trained and in the workforce.
5. Changes in work types and communication patterns have led to new concepts of "The global communication village" and the more local "Work at home" concept. Work can be done over networks. However the many small households have let to a situation where the place of work and the collegues have in many cases become "your family" which takes over the celebration of your birthdays and other festivities. Losing your work environment and your "work family" can be a double blow, thus the concept of "working at home" must be balanced with establishing new social networks-maybe working together with your neighbours in a neighbourhood work station. Any new town must adress the changes of society. In Seaton the following planning principles have been applied:
*Basic unit: Friendly residential streets
Good residential streets have the potential of serving as the basic unit in social networks. A fine shared space with not too much traffic (Dutch "Woonerf-type of creeping street), enough households to create diversity and services, and few enough people to ensure that people know each other to some extend. Streets will be 80–180 meters long with 50–200 households. Each street will have a little "square" in the middle of the block -some 20–30 meters of street with no parking, but with trees, play eqiupment and furniture. Residents parking will take place in the back lane. (Max 1 car/household). Only guests can park in the residential streets, and only in the designated parking spots.
*Low buildings, soft edges
The closer to the ground and the easier it is to go in and out of buildings, the more people uses the outdoor public spaces. Of all types of houses, two storey rowhouses generates the most "Life in the Street" pr. household. In Seaton two, three and four storey buildings will be used, mostly rowhouses. Soft edges by way of frontyards and porches/outdoor terraces/balconies between residence and street, will greatly improve the use of the street, and thus the livelines of the area. Furthermore "soft edges" look nice, warm and friendly, at all times of the year.
*Social & Work services to be placed mainly in the residential streets
Next to the "Squares" in the middle of the residential streets will be located the various services for the street community: Community meeting room, Day care, "Work station for working "at home" plus the Eco-station (for recycling a.s.o).
*A compact city
If car driving is to be reduced, a compact city it has to be, to ensure walkable distances and to ensure the nessesary social potential and diversity. Also when childrens play groups and neighbourhoods are concerned, one can indeed talk about "Critical mass". With smaller and smaller households, (and more sq.meters pr. person), cities have to be still more compact, to ensure a reasonable density for service, social networks and mutual safety.
*A city for walking
If car driving shall be reduced walking is a must.To get to and from public transport one must walk. Many small trips can also be made on foot. And walking is a friendly, sociable and healthy mode of moving about in your city. The city must be rather compact and the walking environment of a very fine standard to ensure that walking becomes an acceptable alternative for moving about.
*A city for bicycling
Bicycling can take care of many trips in the city, but will only work if a safe and comfortable bicycle system is created. Such systems can be seen in Holland and Denmark. The pedestrians have sidewalks all over the city. Likewise bicyclists must have bikelanes and bike crossing on all major streets.
*A tram / LRT city
In order to reduce the dependence of cars a good public transport system must be available. Trams or Light Rail gives the fastest service and the most comfortable rides. Further they signalize "This is not an ordinary car society".
* 3 types of Streets: Residential-, Secondary- & Main Streets
The Seaton plan operates with a very simple street/traffic system. Residential streets are "creeping streets" with no through traffic (parking is in back lanes), secondary streets carries through traffic and some busses, and leads traffic to and from residential streets, Main streets carry the street cars and are the backbone of the traffic as well as the community spines, where places of importance are located.
*Great diversity of people & Functions
In order to create a lively and safe city great efforts should be made towards securing a high level of diversity in the various parts of town: Variety of household types, of age groups, of ethnic backgrounds, a good mixture of working and living including services such as schools, colleges and university units. Narrow units, many doors and a great diversity of functions characterizes the most charming city districts around the world. A pleasant image to reach for.
Creating a friendly, lively, safe city – Some first principles:
In conclusion above design principle can very briefly be summed up in a few first principles for creating a friendly new town:
*Make sure people can walk. Fine walking environments city wide.
*Make sure people can bicycle. Fine bicycling environments city wide.
*Make sure to concentrate rather than disperse your people and your city functions. If nothing much is done in this area people and functions will automaticly be widely dispersed in our present day society.
*Make narrow units, low units and soft edges between public and private
*Make really fine quality outdoor community spaces -The Friendly streets accomodating all types of outdoor activities including acces to houses being an obvious choice. All activities are concentrated in a single shared space. A very advantageous solution.
*Make good indoor community spaces.
Seaton Design principles: environment
*Surface Water must stay on Site
*Waste water must stay on Site
No water from Seaton should end in the sewers. "Living Technology" stations placed in the various city districts, will take care of cleaning the water which can not be directly led into the ground or cleaned by simple means. Cleaned and allmost cleaned water will be used for agricultural irrigation.
*Minimize/recycle garbage
*Minimize use of Energy Energy efficient buildings, use of passive heating a.s.o.
*Reduce Asphalt / Keep Site green
To reduce run off of rain water, asphalt areas will be minimized by using fortified grass, coble stones, small slabs and other pavements which allow the water to go through. Widespread use of grass on roofs will keep site green, reduce amounts of surplus water and permit water to evaporate on site.
*Minimize transport
Transport can be reduced if number of trips is reduced. If people work "At home" some days every week, if services can be found in the neighbourhood a.s.o. Transport can further be reduced if the trips are shorter: If work place is nearby, if goods can be used locally, if schools and services are near at hands thanks to the compactness of the city. Use of cars can further be reduced if trips can instead be made by walking, by bicycling or by using public transportation. Such a policy places stern demands on the city plan. In Seaton a combination of all three strategies will be used to reduce the need to drive cars.
*Simplify technical services
All pipes and technical services to be placed together in culverts down the midle of the residential streets, thus maintenance will be easier -and the street trees will have ample space for growing.
*Generate energy on Site
A number of strategies can be used. Methan gas from nearby garbage dump, Wind energy, Solar energy, Heat pumps.
*Urban agriculture on Site
Argricultural lands nearby invites farming for residents (allotment gardens) or for groups of urban farmers utilizing locally produced fertilizer and (almost) clean water for producing goods for local consumption. Other areas can be used for more traditional farming, still however oriented towards the local market
*District heating/ Cogeneration
District heating will provide for the use of a variety of heating sources. Exess heat from industrial production and electricity production being potential sources. Exess farm products or fuel-crops being other sources.
*Activate the people in the city
No sustainable community will be able to work if the people involved are not directly involved, well informed and themselves given the responsibility to develope the systems and to make it all work. Pride in the community and in its accomplishments toward sustainability is of major importance for the succes of any "green"community.
*Visualize your consumption/ Eco stations
In each little residential street will be located a local "Eco-station"-a little building where the neighbourhood recycling is organized, where you bring and sort "your stuff", where meters and dials for the consumptions of the street will be found and where all types of information on the Seaton ecosystems will be available .
*It should be easy to be green
No city will be "green" if it is not made very simple, very straightforward and very practical to be "green". Also you need the daily support and inspiration from your neighbours and your community. It is hoped that Seaton will be such a place.
Seaton new town -References and design
What would Seaton be looking like? What will the design be like?
Having established the desired principles one do not have to look too far for inspiration and references.
Having decided to use the ordinary Toronto street grid as the planning principle, a close look at the traditional Toronto residential streets will reveal striking qualities.
The city fabric is compact, the streets are pleasant with many trees, they are good to walk on. The houses are close together and all have frontyards and porches. Frankly speaking these streets work very well today, and are still very popular as places to live. Only problem is, that over the years they have attracted too much traffic and too much parking. Furthermore all the old Toronto streets are through streets.
The Seaton-streets will basicly be ordinary good, old Toronto Streets with two important deviations from the old patterns. There will be considerably less parking and traffic, thus making the streets more usefull as playing areas and meeting place for the people. And because the households are smaller now, there will be more units pr. street, and thus somewhat higher buildings. All other features will be well known. Porches, balconies, frontyards and nice, shady street trees.
The more quiet traffic pattern as well as the idea of the little "Square" in the street have been imported from Europe where the most succesfull dutch and danish areas are built along these lines. The details for the Seaton Bicycle environment have the same roots, bicycling however is growing rapidly in Canada by now. The patterns of residential, secondary and main streets are all reuse of well known Toronto typology, however by applying european "traffic calming" principles, Seaton will be able to signalize that driving should be done slower and more carefully -and maybe even able to suggest that it could be more convenient to go by other means of transport. A safer city trafficwise would anyway be acciomplished -and a safer city in most other ways should certainly be the result as well. Or- in conclusion (hopefully!): A Lively City, a Loved City , a Safe City -and a Green City.
